نشریه تاریخ اسلام و ایران
سال سی و دوم شماره 56 (زمستان 1401)

Although the Industrial Revolution and the mechanization of factories reduced the harshness of production and the pressure on the human body to some degree, long hours, intense exploitation, and the dangers of working with unsafe early machinery increasingly affected workers' health and lives. This became a major issue in production and social life, as worker injury and early death caused great damage to the productive forces and economic structure of society. The natural reaction of workers and the emergence of critical and reformatory ideas of various thinkers made the support of the proletariat and attention to the health and hygiene of workers serious demands in the industrial societies of Europe.The creation of modern industries and the emergence of industrial labor, as well as the spread of leftist ideas, led to the spread of the problem to non-European countries, including Iran. The results of the study, based on a combination of causal-rational methods and relying mainly on archival documents and the contemporary press, show that contrary to his leftist policies, Reza Shah, under pressure from international forums and the increasing number of workers in the machine industry, for the first time adopted the "Regulation of Factories and Industrial Establishments" in Iran, but it was not put into practice. After the overthrow of Shah Reza by the Allies and a relatively open political atmosphere, the leftist parties, especially the Tudeh Party, succeeded in forcing the government to draft the first "Health Law for Workers" in Iran.

In times when mystical thoughts were more widespread in society, we can see material evidence of mystical attitudes in addition to literary mystical texts that were written in abundance. Among this evidence are the inscriptions engraved on historical works and buildings. Among the most important platforms on which religious ideas and beliefs are depicted are altars and tombstones, which have the most to do with people's spiritual beliefs. In order to express mystical thoughts, the word "la" is written on these works in a special and impressive way, in most cases without any connection with the main inscription of the work. One of the reasons for this, besides the visual structure of this word, is its mystical meaning. The present study tries to answer the question why "on the inscriptions of most tombstones and altars of the Islamic Middle Ages the word "La" (no) is written, although it does not appear in the text of the verse or hadith? the prevailing assumption is that, according to the testimony of historical literary texts, this word is a mystical substitute for the monotheistic phrase "There is no god but God" and played a role in the past ages with the aim of representing mystical and monotheistic thought in the works that had the most spiritual connection with people

The main objective of this paper is to investigate the relationship between the emergence of private property and the constitutional revolution in Iran by using the social order approach with qualitative research methods. The results show that the Iranian social order during this period was a fragile order with limited access. The authoritarian system distributed land rents among elites and deviated from the security of property rights by creating insecurity to secure its benefits. During the reign of Shah Nasereddin, drought shocks led to tax cuts and forced governments to sell off lands. On the other hand, the connection to international trade through the export of agricultural products led to the reallocation of capital to the land business. These events led to an expansion of private property in the form of large landholdings.According to the theory of double equilibrium, economic and political systems cannot differ in the long run. Thus, at the beginning of the constitutional revolution, private landowners joined the movement. The codification of principles (15), (16) and (17) in the constitutional amendment and the abolition of vassalage guaranteed their property rights. Therefore, in political terms, the social order changes to a basic order with limited access, and the dual equilibrium is restored

The purpose of this study is to examine historically and analytically the familiarity of the Imams of the Ahlul Bayt with the sciences and arts and their use of human resources. The consensus theory of Imamiyyah is that the Imams did not study under any teacher in terms of political and religious authority and the main source of these sciences was the Quran, Sunnah and divine inspirations, but the important point is that the Imams come from knowledge. Other arts and skills such as industry, astronomy, medicine, etc. were also known. The question now is where did the Imams get their knowledge from Were the sources of these sciences also divine or was such knowledge basically never part of the conditions or characteristics of the Imams and they could benefit from other sources in these sciences? ? The idea of this study is that the imams are familiar with human sciences on the one hand and benefit from the sources and methods of human sciences and knowledge on the other hand, and that they use conventional human methods and sources, even though in some cases religious education was also useful and they referred at least to written sources of the family. Although we completely lack access to many sources of this knowledge and information, we can support this hypothesis in a first step by referring to some historical evidences, such as the Imams' use of all kinds of written sources, their orders and efforts. By acquiring historical knowledge, by using the gift of reason and thinking, by ordering and using absolute consultations, by usually relying on all kinds of conventional narratives and reports, they justified and proved this. The result of this study can firstly challenge the "maximum theory" about the sciences of the Imams and their non-human sources;Secondly, to challenge their exaggerated approach about the materials and resources of science.

In the surviving texts from the classical period of Greece, we come across a common word-especially in reference to the Achaemenid Persians-that is still used in the political literature of the contemporary world: Barbarian, derived from the Greek word βάρβαρος. This word, first used in the second book of Homer's Iliad as βαρβαρόφωνος (= speaking a foreign language), indicated only linguistic heterogeneity and meant stranger. Between the 7th and 6th centuries BC, the use of this word increased and it was used not only for linguistic "othering" but also to refer to cultural differences and appreciation of the social system of non-Greeks. In the upcoming study, the authors aimed to analyze the semantic implications of the word βάρβαρος and highlight the turning points of its development by scrutinizing Homer's Iliad and other preserved fragments from the 6th century BC (Archaic period). The results of the present study, based on library sources, show that the word βάρβαρος has been associated with negative connotations (implicit or explicit) since the beginning of its existence in Homer's poetry. Moreover, with Solon's reforms in Athens and the increasing enslavement of non-Greeks in the Greek world of the 6th century BC, the boundary between the two terms "barbarian" and "slave" was gradually erased, and the humiliation of barbarian slaves led to the emergence of the idea of "Greek superiority over non-Greeks."

"Tolerance of ideas" is an appropriate solution to reduce conflicts in relations between people. In societies with a variety of religions, differences are inevitable. The study of the relationship between religion and tolerance has shown that religions often tend not to tolerate other religions. Therefore, some Western thinkers consider religious behavior patterns as factors that increase intolerance of ideas. In this article, using the method of thematic analysis, behavioral patterns based on tolerance and intolerance in interpersonal relationships are examined in the narrations of the Prophet (PBUH) to determine whether the hidden themes in the Prophet's hadiths include prejudiced behavioral patterns that spread religious violence or, on the contrary, promote tolerant behavioral patterns.The study and analysis of the hadiths of the Prophet (PBUH) at the level of identification, coding, and theme finding according to the books of the Shi'a Arba'a and Ṣaḥāḥ Sīta have shown that the frequency of the hadiths whose content is tolerance of the idea is greater than the other category indicating intolerance. The analysis of the intolerant hadiths shows that these hadiths were created at a certain time and were aimed at certain conditions and should be interpreted according to these conditions. Therefore, in the life of the Prophet (PBUH), tolerance was emphasized as a basic principle in the relations of people with each other, and violence and prejudice in religion and faith were prohibited.

At the beginning of their rule, the Qajars used the tradition of dynastic rule to manage the system of territorial division, but from the period of Naser al-Din Shah, the tradition of dynastic rule to manage that system and the use of princes and members of the royal family in the states and provinces gradually lost color, and the bureaucrats of the time and members of their families, They took the place of princes and members of the royal family in the governance of the states and provinces. In this study, the historical research method and the descriptive-analytical approach were used to try to answer the main question of what were the characteristics of the system of territorial division during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah and what were the factors that caused the change of approach from the policy of dynastic rule to the policy of civil rule and what caused the appointment of the ruling judges in the states and provinces. The research method in this study is the historical method with a descriptive-analytical approach in the field of library studies. The results show that the change of state boundaries and the consolidation of states and provinces under the supervision of a ruler, as well as the creation of new states, were the characteristics of the system of territorial division in this period. The administrators of the administrative system of territorial division during the period of Naser al-Din Shah initially continued the policy of dynastic rule, but due to the harmful results of the dynastic rule policy in the political field as well as the weakening of the financial basis of the central government, they changed the approach from the dynastic rule tradition to the civil rule tradition.